Drug â€excipient Interaction of Anti-tubercular Drugs

Drug excipient Interaction of Anti-tubercular DrugsDrug excipient fundamental fundamental interaction of anti-tubercular medicates and its in-silico evaluationAbstractisoniazid and Pyrazinamide are the outgrowth line anti tubercular drugs. milk sugar is in the first place employ as the excipient in solid loony toons reachs of isoniazid and pyrazinamide. These drugs contains autochthonic and secondary aminic functional conference which interacts with milk sugar by maillard answer and form draw. The maillard reply pulls of isoniazid and pyrazinamide with milk sugar were synthesized at 60oC in alcalescent borate buffer pH 9.2 and characterized by UV, FT-IR, DSC, HPLC and MS. go into workplace for in-sillico evaluation of isoniazid- milk sugar draw and pyrazinamide-lactose draw was performed to paper its effect on pharmacological activeness. The present study shows the presence of incompatibility between isoniazid and pyazinamidewith lactose which leads to loss the remedial effect of isoniazid and pyrazinamide.Keywords isoniazid, pyrazinamide, lactose, maillard answer, excipient, incompatibility, dosage form.IntroductionExcipients are traditionally disclose known as promoters of degradation than as stabilizers of drug substances (Crowley 1999). Physicochemical and physiological process e.g. stability, physiological pH, gastrointestinal transit time, disintegration, dissolution, permeability and bioavailability lot be altered by drug excipient interaction (Jackson, Young et al. 2000). The interactions of drug with excipients sewer leads to changes in the chemical, physical and therapeutic properties can be termed as incompatibilities (Chadha and Bhandari 2014) and it whitethorn cause the drug degradation (Narang, Desai et al. 2012) and loss of pharmacological activity (Patil and Patil 2013). Lactose is most widely used as the excipient in the solid dosage forms. Lactose is available in different form and different cross with diffe rent physical characteristics. Lactose is very popular excipient because of low comprise and inertness but in other hand lactose have interaction drug with aminic functional group i.e. lactose undergoes maillard Monajjemzadeh, 2009The maillard reaction is named Louis Maillard who report over 80 years ago that some amine and reduction sugars interact each other and forms brown pigments. The first yield of this reaction is simple glycosamine (Wirth, Baertschi et al. 1998).In this study, we attempted to explore the modes of interaction and energy concealment of the different isomers of isoniazid pull, pyrazinamide draw and confusablely study the biological activity of isoniazid adduct and pyrazinamide adduct compare with the help of various molecular(a) modelling techniques.In treatment of tuberculosis, isoniazid and pyrazinamide are key components of first line regimen (Hemanth, Sudha et al. 2012). isoniazid is chemically isonicotohydrazide and pyrazinamide is chemically pyr azine-2-carboxamide. isoniazid and pyrazinamide is hypersensitised for hydrolysis and oxidation interact with excipient particularly carbohydrate and trim sugars to form hydrazones. The hydrazone is mainly form by the interaction of isoniazid with lactose. There are as well as reported incompatibilities between lactose and other drugs containing primary and secondary amino functional group (Haywood, Mangan et al. 2005). In this study we were investigated the interaction between lactose with isoniazid and pyrazinamide for that different analytical technique were used and also make the in-sillico evaluation of isoniazid and pyrazinamide.Materials and methodsMaterialsIsoniazid and Pyrazinamide was generously supplied as a vest take by Macleods pharmaceutics Ltd., Wapi (Gujarat), India. Lactose monohydrate was purchased from Merck, Merck specialtiesPvt.Ltd. Mumbai, India. All other chemicals were of high-performance liquid state chromatography (HPLC) and analytical grade.MethodsA nalytical methodsUV-visible spectrophotometryThe Ultraviolet-visible spectra of Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide and the Isoniazidlactose adduct, Pyrazinamide-lactose adductwere record on a double beam UV-visible spectrophotometer (UV-1700 Shimadzu, Japan).An accurately weighed quantity of about 10 mg of isoniazid, 10 mg of pyrazinamide, 11.66 mg isoniazid-lactose adduct (equivalent to 10 mg isoniazid), 13.33 mg of pyrazinamide-lactose adduct (equivalent to 10 mg pyrazinamide) each turn separately in one C ml of distilled irrigate. From this, one ml of solution was diluted to 10.0 mL with of distilled wet to obtain concentration of 10 ppm. All solutionswere scanned in UV-Visible rove at 420 and 490 nm (Yates, Jones et al. 2003).Fourier-Transform infrared spectroscopyThe Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra of isoniazid, pyrazinamide, lactose, a isoniazidlactose physical mixture, pyrazinamide-lactose physical mixture and the isoniazidlactose adduct, pyrazinamide-lactose were recorded. The spectra were obtained utilize the diffuse reflectance scan method using KBr on an FT-IR spectrophotometer (IR Affinity 1 Shimadzu, Japan). The scanning execute was 4004000 cm-1. Each sample was scanned 45 times consecutively to obtain FT-IR spectrum.HPLC psycho compendiumThe HPLC (Gradient) system used for analysis consisted of Agilent Technologies 1200 series equipment, a G1315D quaternary pump, a G1315D diode legions detector and a rheodyne injector fitted with a 20 L loop. Data were recorded and evaluated using the EZChrome Elite software package. samplings were analyzed using LunaC18 column (250 4.6 mm i.d. 5 m) (Phenomenex) as stationary physique. The mobile phase was water wood alcohol (9505, v/v), flow rate of 0.8 mL/min with detection at 266 nm for isoniazid and 269 nm for pyrazinamide.Differential scanning calorimetryThermal analysis of Isoniazid, pyrazinamide, isoniazidlactose adduct and pyrazinamide-lactose was performed by differential scannin g calorimetry (DSC) using a TA 6000 Mettler toledo thermal analyzer. Individual samples as wellspring as the Maillard adduct (about 2 mg) were weighed in the DSC aluminum pan and were scanned in the temperature range of 25300C. A heating rate of 10C/min was used. The thermograms were reviewed for evidence of interaction. galvanic pile SpectrometryThe Mass spectrometry was performed using 410 Prostar binary LC with 500 MS with Electro spray Positive ionization and invalidating Ionization mode and Mass range is 50-2000 amu. The Isoniazid-lactose, Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct solution dismissd in mobile phase to obtain concentration about 100g/mL. In the positive ion mode with electrospray ionization technique, the sample was analyzed. closing of lactose in pharmaceutical tablet dosage formsThe presence of lactose in DOTs tablets was initially examined according to Indian Pharmacopoeia 2007 by taking 5ml modify solution of tablet powder and then add 5ml 1 M NaOH, Heat and cool at ro om temperature finally add super C cupri tatatarate the solution becomes red color shows presence of lactose.Preparation of adductSample Prepared in alkaline borate bufferAccurately weighed quantity of Isoniazid 300 mg (equivalent to dose of isoniazid) and 50 mg lactose monohydrate dissolve in alkaline borate buffer pH 9.2 by stirring and ultrasonography in 100 ml lucubrate bottom flask. In similar way 750 mg pyrazinamide (equivalent to dose of pyrazinamide) was dissolve with 250 mg lactose monohydrate in alkaline borate buffer pH 9.2 in 100 ml round bottom flask. The cleared solutions were refluxed at 600C for 12 hour on water bath. The reaction mixture filtered was diluted with menthol water (11). The adduct was subjected to HPLC analysis (gradient and isocratic run) and Mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis. The intensity of brown color was determined was spectrophotometrically after looseness weighed quantity in distilled water.Docking studyThe molecular docking tool, gliding (Schrodinger Inc., USA) (2006) was used for ligand docking study. The protein preparation was carried out using protein preparation mavin in Maestro 9.0.ResultUV-Visible spectroscopyThe UV-visible immersion spectrum of the isoniazidlactose adduct and pyrazinamidelactose adduct had shown an increase in absorption in the visible range as compared with isoniazid and pyrazinamide in distilled water as the solvent. The increased absorption the visible region (brown color) is due to Melanoidins harvestingion as the end products of the Maillard reaction as reported earlier (Shen, Tseng et al. 2007).FT-IR spectroscopyThe FT-IR absorption patterns of Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, lactose, Isoniazidlactose physical mixture immediately after premix and pyrazinamide-lactose physical mixture immediately after mixing as well as Isoniazidlactose adduct, Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct were recorded.The card at 1678 cm1 in the IR spectrum of Isoniazid-lactose adduct, 1614 cm1 Pyrazinamide-lactose adduc t can be attributed to the imines make-up. The peak of NH bending is present at 1552 cm1 and 1583 cm-1 in the IR spectrum of Isonizid and Pyrazinamide and its physical mixture respectively. The peak present in spectrum of Isonizid and Pyrazinamide and its physical mixture are absent in Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct both these observations support the formation of adduct. The NH stretching band of secondary amine appears at 3302 cm1 and at 3292 cm-1 for Isonizid and Pyrazinamide respectively. The peak for the lactose OH appears at 3522 cm1 in the infrared spectra of lactose. The peaks for NH and OH stretching appear in the spectrum of the physical mixture, but the peak for NH disappears in the spectrum of the adduct. This may indicate the reaction of the amine with the reducing sugar, or it may be due overlapping of NH stretching peak with that of OH. The FTIR spectra of Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, Lactose physical mixture, Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazi namide-lactose adduct shows an interaction between Isoniazid and Pyrazinamide with lactose leading to the formation of a Maillard product (Pavia et al 2009).Differential scanning calorimetryThe DSC thermograms show the presence of dissolve points for isoniazid and pyrazinamide at 171.61C and 189.55 C. The DSC thermogram of lactose shows the peak at 209.83 C. The adduct shows the disappearance of the melting point peak of isoniazid, pyrazinamide, paracetamol and vildagliptine in adduct samples confirms the formation of adduct.Gradient HPLC analysisInitially a gradient run of water and methyl alcohol was performed to obtain preliminary information regarding the unknown peaks in maillard reaction products (Shen, Tseng et al. 2007).The mobile phase was optimized to separate the Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct was water methanol (9505, v/v) with a flow rate 0.8ml/min at ambient temperature. The Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct elutes at 3.833min and 1.613 min respectively. The halt samples for isoniazid and pyrazinamide (without lactose) were also analyzed which proves method selectivity.Isocratic HPLC analysisThe optimized isocratic HPLC analysis of the Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose revealed one especial(a) peak that eluted before Isoniazid and Pyrazinamide elution respectively. Performing analysis under identical chromatographic parameters, no another peak was observed in control samples.Mass spectrometryThe Isoniazid-lactose and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct dissolve in mobile phase to obtain drug concentration about 100g/ml.In the positive ion mode with electrospray ionization technique, the sample was analyzed. The MS spectra show the forerunner ion for Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct was protonated molecule (M+H+) m/z 463.3 and 448.1 respectively. The Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct molecular mass was consistent with Isoniazid-lactose add uct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct condensation product respectively. The loss of one water molecule from parent leads to maillard-type condensation product.Docking studyIsoniazidIn docking study, isoniazid shows adhere with ARG-38 amino acid in the selected structure of protein (PDB calculate 3I6N) and isoniazid-lactose adduct shows binding with ASN-72, SER-69, SER-173, ALA-134 and PRO-132 amino acid in the selected structure of protein (PDB engrave 3I6N) as shown in table No. 1.1.PyrazinamidePyrazinamide shows binding with ALA-131 amino acid in the selected structure of protein (PDB code 3PL1) and pyrazinamide-lactose adduct shows binding with ASP-133 and LEU-131 amino acid in the selected structure of protein (PDB code 3PL1).DiscussionOn the above observation difficulties in the formulating a saucily pharmaceutical dosage form have often experienced because of the interaction between the lactose and active ingredients itself i.e. isoniazid and pyrazinamide. Although the nat ure and intensity of this interaction may alter the stability, dissolution rate and consequently absorption of the drug and also affect the pharmacological effect. it indicates that such interactions involving in the formation of the complexes and it canvass by different analytical techniques.The UV results shows increased absorption in the visible region (brown color) is due to Melanoidins production as the end products of the Maillard reaction as reported earlier in Shen, Tseng et al. 2007. The FTIR spectra of Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, Lactose physical mixture, Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct shows peak of C=N it shows that formation of a Maillard product. HPLC analysis of the Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose revealed one extra peak of impurity or maillard reaction product that eluted before Isoniazid and Pyrazinamide elution respectively. The MS spectra show the precursor ion for Isoniazid-lactose adduct and Pyrazinamide-lactose adduct an d it has same molecular weight related to maillard-type condensation product.In the docking study of isoniazid adduct and pyrazinamide adduct shows more binding than isoniazid and pyrazinamide but this is pseudo results because this binding present at hydroxyl radical group and hydroxyl group are responsible for the increase riddance of the isoniazid and pyrazinamide and it may be reduces the therapeutic effect of isoniazid and pyrazinamide. In spite of that analytical study confirm the occurrence of maillard reaction product in lactose containing solid dosage forms of amino functional group containing drugs but lactose is still preferred as excipient in the isoniazid and pyrazinamide containing anti-tubercular formulation i.e. DOTs.ConclusionThe present study reports that antitubercular drugs i.e. isoniazid and pyrazinamide undergoes maillard reaction and that confirmed by UV, FT-IR, HPLC and MS. The docking study of isoniazid adduct and pyrazinamide adduct more binding than isoni azid and pyrazinamide but it is pseudo results pharmacologically the excretory product of isoniazid and pyrazinamide increase and it ultimately reduces the therapeutic activity. A drugs- excipient interaction study can be actively used to the advantage of the formulator to increase the bioavailability of the drug. By compiling the data the use of lactose in the formulation of isoniazid and pyrazinamide, secondary amines needs to reconsideration.ReferencesChadha, R. and S. Bhandari (2014). Drugexcipient compatibility screeningRole of thermoanalytical and spectroscopic techniques. diary of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis87 82-97.Crowley, P. J. (1999). Excipients as stabilizers. Pharmaceutical wisdom technology today2(6) 237-243.Haywood, A., et al. (2005). unwritten isoniazid mixture stability implications. Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Research35(3) 181.Hemanth, A. K., et al. (2012). uncomplicated and rapid liquid chromatography method for simultaneous determination of isoniazid and pyrazinamide in plasma. SAARC Journal of Tuberculosis, Lung Diseases and HIV/AIDS9(1) 13-18.Indian Pharmacopoeia, (2007). Government of India, Ministry of health and family walefare, published by the Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission, Gaziabad vol. II III, pp. 658, 478, 628, 1009, 1008.Jackson, K., et al. (2000). Drugexcipient interactions and their affect on absorption. Pharmaceutical science technology today3(10) 336-345.MONAJJEMZADEH, F., HASSANZADEH, D., VALIZADEH, H., SIAHI-SHADBAD, M. R., MOJARRAD, J. S., ROBERTSON, T. A. ROBERTS, M. S. 2009b. Compatibility studies of acyclovir and lactose in physical mixtures and commercial tablets. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 73, 404-413.Narang, A. S., et al. (2012). Impact of excipient interactions on solid dosage form stability. Pharmaceutical research29(10) 2660-2683.PAVIA, D. L. 2009. Introduction to spectroscopy, CengageBrain. comPatil, D. D. and C. R. Patil (2013). Modification of pharmacologic al activity of nebivolol due to Maillard reaction. Pharmaceutical development and technology18(4) 844-851.Petrella, Stphanie Gelus-Ziental, Nathalie Maudry, Arnaud Laurans, Caroline Boudjelloul, RachidSougakoff, Wladimir(2011).Crystal structure of the pyrazinamidase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis insights into natural and acquired granting immunity to pyrazinamide.PLoS One,6(1)e15785.Singh, Amit K Kumar, Ramasamy P Pandey, Nisha Singh, Nagendra Sinha, Mau Bhushan, AshaKaur, PunitSharma, SujataSingh, Tej P (2010). Mode of Binding of the Tuberculosis Prodrug Isoniazid to Heme Peroxidases BINDING STUDIES AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF BOVINE LACTOPEROXIDASE WITH ISONIAZID AT 2.7 RESOLUTION.Journal of biological chemistry, 285(2) 1569-1576.Shen, S.-C., et al. (2007). An analysis of Maillard reaction products in ethanolic glucoseglycine solution. Food chemistry102(1) 281-287.Wirth, D. D., et al. (1998). Maillard reaction of lactose and fluoxetine hydrochloride, a secondary amine. Journal of p harmaceutical sciences87(1) 31-39.Yates, E. A., et al. (2003). zap enhanced reaction of carbohydrates with amino-derivatised labels and glass surfaces. Journal of Materials Chemistry13(9) 2061-2063.

Economic development in Caribbean

Economic development in CaribbeanThe Caribbean is cognise for its beautiful islands and breath-taking shores. thither atomic keep down 18 numerous sites in this region of thousands of diverse islands. To list a few reasons as to why its a huge take upion to phaetons from whole over the demesne, then the coral reefs, colorful fruits, golf courses, sailboats and the wonderful sunsets at the beach ar just the tip of the ice burg. Its the perfect rate to relax with the family and a Caribbean holiday is the best place if anyone is seeking for a little adventure. The Caribbean fronts to have ein truth matter for a great vacation from horse move to hiking, wildlife holiday chooserry and ofttimes much. E verything from exploring the beautiful waterf alls, going kayaking upriver and even canoeing gives the Caribbean the carrousel nearly position in touristry category. The Caribbean has both extinct and exsert volcanoes. It gives a definite adrenaline rush for touring cars seeking it. Its tropical rainforests consists of rarefied and exotic animal species. It is by all means, absolutely beautiful. The Caribbean region consists of thousands of islands and to consult a few that are of great tourists interest and as tell in http//wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_names_of_the_Caribbean_islands Anguilla UK, Antigua Barbuda, Aruba Netherlands, Bahamas, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe France, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Martinique France, Montserrat UK, Netherland Antilles, Puerto Rico US, St. Barthelemy, St. Kitts Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Martin, St. Vincent Grenadines, Trinidad Tobago, Turks Caicos UK and US Virgin Island.Its non wholly nigh the adventures but the Caribbean features cites of its rich inheritance and unique architecture. If we were to take a look into the most popular tourist attraction in the Caribbean then this would definitely include the Barbados a piffling island in any case called as little England during the British era. It is called so, because it still contains a break of the thriving British legacy, cricket, Anglo Saxon activity and high tea.We have Antigua Barbuda that has more(prenominal) than 356 beaches (representing one for every(prenominal) year). This too is a nonher popular tourist attraction. indeed there is Guyana which is a one of the indep ratiocinationent members in the Caribbean. It is overly know for its beaches and countless rivers and lakes. The best grimace to it is that gold deposits and diamonds can be ready at the river bottoms and hillsides. This place is popular for yachting and sailing.Another beautiful island is ST Lucida. This island is known for its mountains that are covered with forests and the wildlife in it. Such other marvelous sites in the Caribbeans are St Martin, Trinidad, Cuba, Jamaica, Cayman Islands and much more.Situated in the Caribbean Sea is the Roatan Honduras Island that has brought the sparing a constant dramatic increase collectable to the scuba diving fans. This place offers its visitors everything, ranging from marine wildlife to scuba lessons and even certification. It is know for its coral which is very diverse and can be seen easily. Here, tourism is salutary developed, hotels are wellspring equipped and the resorts are numerous. This place is even called the Caribbeans best kept secret. It is no doubt one of the most beautiful sites and experiences to have.According to Gmelch, George (Behind the Smile the workings Lives of Caribbean touristry. Bloomington, IN Indiana UP, 2003), the Caribbean governments wel tot tourists with warm hearts because they realized that the Caribbean delivery is completely dependant on tourism, also being referred to as the railway locomotive of their growth. Economic development in the Caribbean has benefited merchants, farmers, fishermen and many more. According to Pattullo, Polly. ( pull round Resorts the Cost of tourism in the C aribbean. London Cassell, 1996), Tourism is a huge contributor to the economies of all Caribbean countries and the biggest contributor to many of them such as Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas and the Virgin IslandsYolande Wilson MBA 08 In the Caribbean Tourism Fueled by Hotel Development The Good and the Bad, explains that the success of Caribbean tourism is likely because stack have the thoughts of aqua blue waters, warm sand beaches and high life images on their minds. It is these precise thoughts that play a large share in the tourism business in the Caribbean. This deposits all the focus on the tourism companies, services industries and real estate development. Tourism in the Caribbean is as primeval as 1862 where Jamaica had health spas and cruises that ran to the island but now, the tourism industries in the Caribbean estimates an anticipated parcel of over 18.7 billion dollars by 2011.Another author named C. James Hospedales wrote intimately the importance of tourism to Caribbean development in ( goodly Tourism in the Caribbean) Saturday, twenty-second September 2007. He explained that 25 billion dollars were the gross output in the Caribbean tourism with more than 12 million tourists arriving for stay in the Caribbean and more than 6 million cruise ships. Hotels were completely booked and tourism became very authorised to the Caribbean thrift. Tourism in the Caribbean is even compared to oil in the put East. They have also made it a motto Caribbean development through quality tourism which made it clean up that the economy will be completely dependant on tourism for the coming years.With the arrival of the meshwork on 1995 which made it possible to spread the word of all the secure and bad news. It was an effective tool in informing the world some this ravishing country. There was also the European tour operators whom made it cushy for the tourists to get to the Caribbean from the European countries. in time, with the success of increas ing arrivals of tourists that helped raise the countrys economy, it also brought in the possibility of diseases being imported from different parts of the world. Yet this did not stop the Caribbean tourism organization from making sure that such issues on with injuries are minimized to its lowest. Their vision was that the Caribbean to be the safest, happiest, and healthiest of comparable destinations in the worldIts obvious that tourism has alter the economy of the Caribbean region. These effects are in the beginning due to the travel and tourism industries. Through Paul McDaniels point of view, an eHow modify writer in The effects of Tourism in the Caribbean, the economy was tingeed both positively and negatively. From these effects, wed notice that it includes the Caribbeans utmost and complete cartel on tourism and travel industries. But because, most of these tourism companies are never usually based in a particular Caribbean island, much of the money made does not stay on the Caribbean. This may also appear as a disadvantage for the Caribbean. However, without the competing companies, the economy could also be highly affected.However, David Jessop wrote about Grasping the full economic meet of Caribbean tourism Sunday September 23, 2007 and questioned if the governments truly understood the importance of tourism, which in his terminology is the intentness that now underwrites the regional economy. He provided reports that were produced over the last 2 years that explained the positive impact tourism had on the economy. These reports were based on the studies produced, adjudgeed and encouraged by the Caribbean tourism organization and Caribbean hotel association. It was a clear demonstration to the government that tourism has become the dominant force in the Caribbean. In these reports, the Caribbean tourism is pass judgment to get over 56.1 billion dollars economically with about 15% increase in tourism employment from 2007 to 2017. fundamen tally these earnings are expected to grow over 3 part per year. Therefore, from these readings its pretty clear that the Caribbean region is economically dependent on the tourism constancy. However, if these industries do not remain competitive, then the economic boost could come to an end.The problems that face the Caribbean tourism industry are those of globalization as well as interdependence. Therefore the beauty and nature of the country will not be enough to make the regions case. It requires the government to play a role in supporting it to the fullest. Whether its decreasing the taxes, providing public health education or even changing the policies to fit the countrys increasing economy.In a pacific islands report written by Sir Ronald Sanders in the Benefits of Caribbean tourism must be shared, he wrote about another problem that could affect the tourism industry in the Caribbean which is surprisingly the racial division notion in the island. This animated problem cause s constant discomfort among many hotel owners that are expatriates, managers and the citizens yet they take for granted not deal with it. These problems are being left depressed identical the racial division between the ownership on one side and the workers on the other. This problem is expected to worsen in the future if not dealt with now. Given the growing size of tourists coming into the country every year, it would hold open requiring a large size of financial investments for the resorts and hotels in the Caribbean. These investments are primarily funded by the white expatriates that own tourism companies and can build or own resorts and any other tourism aspects in the business. This may seem as a problem because the profits in this case are sent abroad. The country does not benefit and the balance is disturbed.In an abduct written by Harry G. Matthews, 6 May 2009 Radicals and third world tourism A Caribbean focus, he talks about the metropolitan tourism in third world cou ntries that have brought to question the tourist industries in a more political and social way. He talks about how it could affect the country and in this case, the Caribbean. He believes that tourism is an intrusion which is of metropolitan type, developed by the white people into the world of non-white. He also believes that these are merely fantasies sold to the tourists, causing the rise of cultures in countries equal the Caribbean. Therefore the solution lies with the government of these countries where they are trying to bring forth an increase in sophistication. However, it is uncertain of how this action would actually take place.A critique Tom Womeldorff analyzes the Caribbean tourism in an interesting way in Caribbean tourism A deprecative analysis 10/14/2009. He writes about the western mentality of escaping to tropical islands with exotic animals, plants and warm sunsets. This fantasy is offered by the Caribbean tourism resorts and travel agencies that aim to fulfill the western dream. And recently, the commercialise has included the catering of tourists whom want to experience the exotic island to the fullest. These tourism agencies are expanding to provide whatever desires that could have tourist dollars following it. Therefore these tourist industries pityfully construct the hotels and resorts to meet the conceptions and needs of tourists. This perception to perfection just comes with a cost. Although it provides as a source of income to the Caribbean people, it has made them completely commoditized because it requires that they put all their focus in the tourism programme, to make every thing possible.In The state and tourism a Caribbean perspective by Hilton McDavid, Diaram Ramajeesingh, the uprise mentions an important something to think about and its how the tourism industries are now the content of attention. This is because the country is now tourism dependant. But does the government do what it takes to make sure that the social and environmental needs are taken care off? In this journal, the writers believe that the government have to work harder in order to shape the tourism industries in a way that every sector in the Caribbean benefits.The Stabroek staff February 5, 2010 inBusiness the Caribbean tourism industry raise an important question Will the 2009 nightmare push regional tourist destinations towards diversification. It is full-strength that the Caribbean got caught up in the economic crisis that took away jobs, homes, savings and much more. The Caribbean people were beginning to wonder if they have to shift towards diversification for their economic incomes. The number of tourists drastically changed and Caribbean development bank activities showed a significant decline. Sharply declining tourist arrivals according to the CDB with other investments, the main transmission channels of the crisis to regional economies.However it appears that the Caribbean has settled down from all the economic probl ems and found its comfort regulate where its reassured that the tourists will keep coming in. the CDG even reports that the growth is expected to return and is likely to become the same by 2011.Although the whole economy of the country, peoples jobs and welfare cannot wait till the crises associated with the whole world is recovered, diversification for a better economy should be considered.In Caribbean tourism looking toward an advantage in 2010 by Linda Hutchinson-Jafar, Jan 28, 2010, after the economic crises that effected the countrys economy due to the decline in tourists rate, the Caribbean tourism industry began improving despite illegal and tax problems in some of the islands.And the earthquake that hit Haiti did not affect the islands economy much. Chastanet verbalise, during and annual event in the Caribbean We will probably end the year 5.6 percent down but were looking for a immobile rebound in 2010And a hotel owner Rene Seepersadsingh The economic situation globall y impacted negatively on Tobago. Hotels reported as much as a 40 percent decline in stayover, particularly from the British and the German marketsAs for Jamaica, it was seeing a 4% increase in arrivals while the other islands were reporting a decline in 2009. This is probably because it was running ads on television across North America, tempting them to totality the warm summers. They were very successful with their ads as Barlett who works at the airlines said For this winter season now beginning, we have a record 1 million (airline) seats which is the largest number we ever had.The unusual part is that Jamaica continues to attract tourists even though it is categorized as one of the most red-faced countries in the world. The murder and crimes rates were 1,680 last year alone. Barlett believes that Its a contradiction. The most iconic attraction in Jamaica is the people. It belies the crime statisticsFinally the most radius about topic in the Caribbean tourism is HARPOONING CARI BBEAN TOURISM SWALLOWING A nonviable RAT by Sir Ronald SandersSunday, March 14, 2010. The new attractions that require full support by the Caribbean governments are the whale watching activities. There was an international concourse held in Martinique from February 18 to 21 on what they call Sustainable gentle tourism in the Caribbean, specifically urging the Caribbean government to not only support this attraction but to protect the marine wildlife and mammal community by providing sustainable jobs to the fishermen. This new attraction is bound too boost the economy situation and the exotic fantasies keep getting better.Thus the Caribbean keeps determination ways to attract tourists and its economy although highly dependant on tourism yet, very rich.ReferencesGmelch, George. Behind the Smile the Working Lives of Caribbean Tourism. Bloomington, IN Indiana UP, 2003.Pattullo, Polly. Last Resorts the Cost of Tourism in the Caribbean. London Cassell, 1996Yolande Wilson MBA 08, Cari bbean Tourism Fueled by Hotel Development The Good and the BadC. James Hospedales Saturday, 22nd September 2007, Healthy Tourism in the Caribbean The Importance of Tourism to Caribbean Development http//www.4hoteliers.com/4hots_fshw.php?mwi=1433Paul McDaniel,eHow impart Writer, The Effects of Tourism in the CaribbeanDavid Jessop Grasping the full economic impact of Caribbean tourism Sunday September 23, 2007http//jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20070923/business/business2.htmlSir Ronald Sanders, PACIFICISLANDSREPORT, BENEFITS OF CARIBBEAN TOURISM MUST BE SHAREDTom Womeldorff , 10/14/2009 Caribbean Tourism A Critical Analysis http//archives.pireport.org/archive/2007/February/02-08-comm1.htmThe Stabroek staff February 5, 2010 inBusiness the Caribbean tourism industryThe Caribbean tourism industryWill the 2009 nightmare push regional tourist destinations towards diversification?LINDA HUTCHINSON-JAFAR JAN 28, 2010, Caribbean tourism looking toward an improvement in 2010 http//www.eturbon ews.com/14106/caribbean-tourism-looking-toward-improvement-2010Sir Ronald Sanders. Sunday, March 14, 2010 HARPOONING CARIBBEAN TOURISM SWALLOWING A unwarranted RAThttp//www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/Sanders-Mar-14http//wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_names_of_the_Caribbean_islandsIn The state and tourism a Caribbean perspective by Hilton McDavid, Diaram Ramajeesingh, JournalInternational Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management

Waterfall Model Vs Prototyping Model

f each(prenominal)s impersonate Vs Prototyping ModelSoftw be crossings causeed in toold age era argon almostly customer oriented. It is either drives the market or it driver by market. Customer Satisfaction was the primary(prenominal) aim in the 1980s. Customer Delight is todays logo. Market needs more customers oriented and little emphasizes on the engineering. Though the technology element is always the prime factor behind the deliverables, the product should always satisfy the customer needs. The product exploitation should start contracting on the customer requirements in reference of two the retail found products and products developed establish on pre-defined specifications.The softw be products wish different engineering products hurt various typecasts of growth or manufacturing strategies to father the final output. The most noteworthy softw atomic number 18 ontogeny strategies atomic number 18 as followsWaterf wholly ModelEvolutionary Model or Proto typing Modelincremental ModelSpiral ModelThe most utilize models ar Waterf all in all models used for in the main small scale projects and single liberate based software products, whereas the Prototyping Model is used for developing large scale products generally developed in multiple bulges rather than single print be boldnesss called random variable of rel rest.The software victimizations strategy I prefer is Prototyping Model. The moderateness for selecting the Prototyping Model encourages progressive strategic development with course of bodyguard.With prototyping model, I am as well using non-agile go up and USDP modeology as active part of the development process.The usage of the prototyping non-agile approach and USDP methodology is close-fittingified below to be the best choice for my Project.WATERFALL MODEL vs. PROTOTYPING MODELWaterfall Model is a flow based model which consist of avocation phases-1. musical arrangement/Information Engineering and Modeli ng2. package Requirements Analysis3. bodys Analysis and picture4. Code Generation5. Testing6. MaintenanceA Waterfall method of software development has to pass finished either phase once, and non meant to go back to previous phase again. Once the requirements request do freeze, changes set upt be d oneness during any phase. That is why, it is used rarely straightway a days. Due to this If on that point is any change in requirements, and past it becomes awkward as well as appeally affair. Apart from this apiece phase takes a lot of time to produce issue for its concomitant next phase as it is irreversible process the solution should be well optimized and satisfactory. If one phase result goes wrong means succeeding phases vex effected.Prototyping Model is a technique that uses the technique of replication of hardly a(prenominal) aspects or feature of anticipate product and it is then developed upon it to contract the full software. It discount be called trope ing of software prototypes or fugitive versions of software program being developed for full edition deliverables.The main theme behind the prototyping is to allow users to evaluate developers proposal for the public figure of expected product based on real time analysis by user rather than catching by the developers themselves. So it is as well as referred as an efficient way of widenessling the prototype that act as a key factor in the commercial relationship between clients and respective(prenominal) solution provider. The client and the contractor tin can compare if the software make water matches the software specification, according to which the software program is build.In simulacrum strategy of development as we create a number of Prototypes of the product, before the release of final one. We release number of Prototypes with just about differences between them unless as versions, and take client opinion, and modify the final blends, as per client suggestions. Prototype is developed by lionizeing currently known requirements in the mind. increment of prototype undergoes design, coding, testing standardised phases which give client an actual opinion of the placement. Prototype is a model which calculates exactly like Software development life cycle (SDLC).AGILE MODELvs NON-AGILE MODELAgile software development is mainly based on iterative development in which solutions are generated from the collaboration between the phases and functional teams of development. The agile software development approach has taken the software developing industry by storm. Agile software development has been en vogue in this decade. It started with the popularity of Extreme Programming (XP) and Kent Becks serial publication of take holds on the topic. nighwhere it creates a misleading impression that agile is non formal and hence maintenance cost is trim down or controlled by spending more on up-front design. Of course, traditional (non-agile) methods shine in a nonher(prenominal) areas. Agile methods are counter indicated, for example, where there are no body experts, so that only exhaustive study can possibly make known whats truly needed.Most agile methods are, of course, informal, and so get out not incline unaltered in a problem area where formality is one of the requirements hardly enough agile methods arrest been formally documented that for any formal project where exhaustive study is NOT a requirement, there should be precedent for using a (formal) agile method. Non-Agile software development provides a traditional simple way to develop software. It reduces the whole cost as well as time consumed in the development. It is less alter from the type of resources.Management intimacy body (MIS)A focal point information arrangement (MIS) is a process that provides the information which are essential to exercise an judicature professionally. MIS are totally different from regular information bodys in that they a re used to analyze other information remainss applied in operational activities in the organization. Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the collection of information revolve about methods tied to the automation or hold out of mankindity finis reservation. MIS are computer-based agreement of rules that provides autobuss with the tools for organizing, evaluating and efficiently running their departments. In tack to provide past, present and prediction information, an MIS can include software that helps in decision making, info resources much(prenominal) as informationbases, the hardware resources of a system, decision strengthener systems, people give carement and project management maskings, and any computerized processes that enable the department to run efficiently.MIS are intentional for ease of any type of pedigree or organization. Now almost e rattling kind of organization has its own MIS. It is a suite of software practical finishings t hat to tuckerher make it workable for people or bank linees to store, modify, and extract information from a informationbase. on that point are many MIS places in your ein truthday life like in banks, hospitals, hotels colleges and universities have their own management system.MIS are helpful for organizations and institutes. Universities have their own managements systems. There are many departments in a university like examination, admission, registration, administration, hostel, finance. All these are require a veracious and stark(a) management, so for this reason MIS are intentional to manage these departments. Every department has its own MIS which is specifically intentional to handle its operation like data retrieval, computer memory and modification.Whenever the earnings came every organization and institute is try to provide the demote facilities with making their MIS online to satisfy their client. Todays every company and organization is moving on internet an d building database in such a way that provided the better facilities and fundamental action to their clients as compare to past. subroutine subroutine library information system (LIS)LIS are knowing to record and hold in the information related mass of accounts and activities of program program depository program subroutine library. LIS plays unavoidable role in a university library because it provides the information about all types of earmarks in a better organized manner. LIS keeps the track of all the books in a university. It contains records of individually and every book and the genus Phalluss who take ined the book. In other aspects LIS as well as serves as an accounts manager for library. It tracks and images possible fines, takes tuition for component securities and when required provide monetary computation related to library to the university accounts office which manages university financial resources. The LIS is always ready to care data with the u niversity rudimentary accounting system 1.Traditionally manual of arms file away based systems serve as LIS in universities. Registers and note books are used to prevent records for available and borrowed books. A university having multiple departments normally has requirement to maintain a separate point for to each one department and sometimes for each session a department may demand to have a separate register. This builds a large register set which is very voiceless to maintain and is highly error prone. In such scenarios to issue book needs much effort whereas at the corresponding time to matter and report monetary issues, and perform other managerial tasks may sometimes take days or even weeks.The library user share is mainly the scholarly persons and the university cater. subroutine library wags are issued to each of them. When educatees or ply members borrow books from library, the librarian needs to assay for the relevant register and slip in the informatio n of borrower and the borrowed book on relevant page. At the corresponding time he needs to assure that the member should be clear from library issues, the book can be borrowed and it is similarly his responsibility to provide the member with his time to possess the book. Sometimes members are not known to timings or forget to return the book in time even when they indirect request to return it. In manual management of LIS it is not possible to cast to process of warnings for library members when their returning dates are near to come. On the very other status where pupil are staff also looking very rocky to integrate with such system because the most vexatious part of this system for them is the time took on any process, either to borrow book or to search book or most vexing when they need their clearance from the library and it take a day to just get a single signature.The only solution to these drawbacks of manual LIS lies in automation of the library information system by computerizing it and integrating with other management systems of a university. By automation of LIS it means to develop a fully computerized system that serves to enable the pure(a) library operations through computers. Automations have some traditional advantages over manual systems like no paper work required and easy to backup, high consistency of data and it is possible to schedule those tasks which are somewhat impossible in manual systems. Similarly, in context of LIS automation results in ease of library administration, control and tracking processes. The convenience of both librarians and members who use library is increased callable to higher decrease of time. It becomes a matter of minutes to perform managerial tasks and estimating monetary matters and many other issues which are never resolved in manual systems.It all becomes wonderful when automation also occurs in making the system online, because through this the system becomes available for 24 hours 7 days a w eek. It means the educatee has no need to go through so many book racks to find a book and does not need to go to library to reserve a book. He just needs to go there and get his reserved book. He moldiness not be worried to remember the returning date because he knows that he will be sent an alert indicating the return date of the book he has borrowed. So all this becomes more and more commodious with the increased automation in the process of LIS.LIS Automation for university means to develop a fully computerized system that enables the complete library functions through computers. The system provides the basic set of features to add/ modify/ scrub member, add/ modify/ delete books, search for books, and manage check-in / checkout processes. Automated LIS is designed to pertain the needs of libraries both large and small, not only to meet the traditional requirements of a resource centre, but also able to keep track on borrowed books in university. This system is very helpful fo r university staff, student members and librarians because this system is also interact with the bar code subscriber and magnetized card reader. When the student and staff members are registered in university they are issued library cards from library. Through this card they can borrow books from the library. When they enter in library their cards are identified through the magnetic card reader and barcode reader is helpful for them in searching the books.The automation of LIS lessens human efforts in university. The maintenance of the records is do efficient, as all the records are stored in the database, through which data can be update, delete and retrieved easily. It also reduced the chance of frauds and errors because all things are computerized.Existing solutionEXISTING frame ARCHITECTUREThe living LIS in university is completely manual and file based. It contains the records of all books and members of the university so this builds a large register set which is very diff icult to maintain. In this situation to issue book, return book, fine management, catalog management and member registration verification need much effort whereas at the same time to perform other managerial tasks may sometimes take days or even weeks.CDocuments and SettingsATIFADesktopuntitled.JPGFigure 1 Manual Library SystemIn this system, it is also very difficult to control the process of warnings for library members (student and staff) when their returning dates are near to come. bookman and staff members are also faced the problem of book search and borrow. And when they need their clearance from the library, it also takes a day to just get a single signature. In animate manual system all the library members (librarian, staff and students) are faced a lot of difficulties when they are going to issue book, return book, fine management, book catalog management and member registration verification.Issue BookTo issue a book in an existing system is a big matter because when stud ent and staff members borrow books from library, the librarian needs to search for the relevant register and enter the information of borrower and the borrowed book on relevant page. At the same time the book can be borrowed when librarian is assured that the member should be clear from library issues.Return BookTo return a book process is also very irritating and time down as well as the issue book process. Sometimes members are not known to timings or forget to return the book in time even when they want to return it. In this system it is not possible to regulate the process of warnings for library members when their returning dates are near to come because this system is completely manual. pretty ManagementBecause the existing LIS in university is completely manual so the fine management is also a tuff and time eat task. It is very complicated to tracks and calculates possible fines, takes care for member securities and when required provide monetary calculation related to libr ary to the university accounts office which manages university financial resources.Book Catalog ManagementUniversity central library contains the records of all books related to its every department and its LIS is manual so the book catalog management is not easy. When members returned the borrowed books then there is no proper management to see is the book is placed at right spatial relation or not. To add, delete and search the required book is time consuming process because librarian needs to arrange the proper registers for this.Member modificationFiles and registers are used in university for member registration, so that all the student and staff members records are saved on them. When the members information are added, deleted and updated the entries in associated registers are also updated which required a large amount of time. pupil and staff members registration information is also required to LIS to issue the library cards of each of them. Library staff adds all these i nformation in registers to keep the track of members of LIS so this is also required enough time.The complete functions of existing system are shown in figure. It represents the overall functionality of library in university.Proposed System ArchitectureScope of Proposed SystemLibrary System is a library information and knowledge management system. This application is used to support a librarian in managing a book library in university. The system is designed to provide the basic set of to add, delete or update members, add, delete or update books, and search for books processes. The main focus of this system is to reduce human efforts. The maintenance of the records is made efficient, as all the records are stored in the database, through which data can be retrieved easily. Some of the other specific objectives of the Library System are as questMinimum amount of work should be required.Special hardware such as bar code reader and magnetic card reader should be used with this system for security and efficiency.Permanent storage of data should be done easily by using the database instead of the registers.It provides the port wine for librarians to interact with the backend library database.It provides the user interface to add, delete or update in the altogether student and staff member in the database.It also provides the interface to add, delete or update book information in the book database.graphical user interface to search for a book based on user inputs.It provides the interface to check out of books which are issued by student and staff member.It also checks in the books which are returned by student and staff member.Calculate and manage the record for fine.Provide a facility to automatically lead reminders to university members when required.Product PerspectiveThe Library System is developed for the library to help the staff members, students and Librarians to search and borrow books. The system provides information related to books to the members of the library. The Librarian can keep the tracks of books updated all the time so that the student and the staff members get the up to date information all the time.This system is developed to interact with its users like librarian students and staff members of the university. The system has to interact with other systems like Library System, Member enrolment System, Catalog Management System, Accounting System, telecommunicate System, Fine and Reminder Bot System, secure Management System, and Online Client System of university.Software Requirment specificationsIntroductionThe library system provides the information about the books available in the Library. It provides different type of run for its users, such as reserve book, restore book, check items, and check fines and view hold requests in the account. The following requirements specifications and required functions of the Library System are given belowLibrary membersThe Library has university staff and students as its m embers. All members essential be registered with the library and issued with Username and rallying cry for accessing their account in Library System.Book issue and returnWhen a library member login via his account he can issue books. The system restricts the borrow limits as this a staff member can borrow up to 4 books up to 4 weeks and a student can borrow up to 2 books for up to 2 weeks. When a book is borrowed or returned by the library member, the information should be captured in the system and the account of the member should be updated. Only book items can be issued in library, currently journals and magazines should only be read in the library.Fine calculation and send late book remindersThe system is able to calculate fines and send reminders to members automatically. When a return date is neglectful, information about overdue items, overdue days and accumulated fines is sent to the user via email.Adding and deleting booksLibrarian is responsible to maintain the infor mation about catalogues and library members. He can add, update and delete books in database.Querying to find booksThe system provides search functions to library members they can search a book through online catalogue. All book items in library are searched either by ISBN No or Author. traverse generationLibrary system generates reports for the system administration automatically.User characteristicsThe main users of the system are student and staff members, librarian of the university who maintain the system. It is fictional that the members and librarian have the basic knowledge of internet and computers. This system ensures that the system administrator have enough knowledge of the internals of the system such as he is able to correct the small problems like disk crashes and mightiness failure. The proper GUI, users manual, online help and the guide to install and maintain the system must be provided with the system to educate the users.System ConstraintsAll the users informat ion must be stored in a database that is accessible by the library system.The library system is connected to the university emcee and that is available 24 hours.The library system is accessible for the users who have internet connection with their computers in university.The Member Registration System, Catalog Management System, Accounting System, Email System, Fine and Reminder Bot System, Purchase Management System, and Online Client System are connected to the Library System and the database used by these systems must be compatible with the interface of the System.The users login into Library System through their username and password which they are assigned.System Assumptions and DependenciesEnough knowledge of computers should be required.To access the system online in university internet connection should be required.Library system can access the university student database.Microsoft SQL Management studio apartment 2005 to store the database.To developed the product by using ASP.Net and C .Net.RequirementsFor the Online slacken Booking system following features will be provided to the customers related to turn off reservation.Students/ module RequirementsSearch BooksSearch Issue Book by Student/Staff IDSearch Reserve Book by Student/Staff IDGet Fine by Student/StaffGet integrality Fine for Student/StaffAnalysis Models rule ModelsThe Physical design of the system is developed from perspicuous design, which is completely based on logical design 9. It is completely based upon the relationship among the data rather than the storage structures. The systematic organization of data which is used in automated system makes a database different form of record keeping 10. mend design the database for the system, theses facts such as data integration, data sharing, no redundancy and data consistency have been taken care. Physical design consists of Table Design and Specifications.Database Physical SchemaTools and TechnologiesTools and technologies refer to th e text which describes the used and required expert specifications of the designed system. The system is a kind of information system which is targeted to be an n-tier application without losing setting application style. The requirement to be n-tier and also to have a desktop application demands for a technology combination where following areas can be integrated to build up the system.Centralized data sourceInteroperabilityEase of useIntegrityAvailabilityIntegrating with the existing systemRapid developmentAll these areas have their own constraints, some of which make it difficult to introduce them in a single system. While our technology study our team was working to find a solution that can help us in such a situation. In earlier stages we had an idea to provide a client host application where the data source will be centralized host and clients will call that for data function. This idea could have worked if the available time was not very short, so we left this option. La ter we found a better solution to design a network application that provides the required services and we started working upon that but soon our team found a complete solution that had solved our problems. Creating a web application has some constraints which are number 2 and 3 in the above list. These constraints were removed by the virgin solution where we shifted to service oriented architecture and used a communications protocol based approach to provide data to our client application this architecture is named as SOAP Service Oriented Architecture Protocol. decision making finally on our system architecture we decided to use the same database management system, which is used by the university website. This decision was to support to integration of the new product with the old system and for the same reason we had used the web technology used by the website. One of the targets of the system design was to glare the cost for the deployment of the developed system, because it wi ll only add up with the existing system and no changed will be required. On the other face no need to buy or manage or maintain any new waiter. It will just require simple system with required software packages installed and the system will start providing its services. Normally there will be no need to configure the client side application.The coming text will describe the software technologies which were used to design the software with their justification to use them.Server SideServer side was build with following technologiesASP.NETThe reason to use this web technology is already described above. The website for University of Sargodha is designed using ASP.NET and is currently active and working. So to support integration with the existing web application our team decided that we must use the same technology there are using. It is very famous Microsoft technology and is used to build any kind of web solutions from simple personal websites to n-tire enterprise level web applicat ion. In comparison with other similar technologies like PHP and Java Server Pages it focuses on development of tint products rapidly.MSSQL Server 2005MSSQL server is a database management system which is a product of Microsoft. It is very famous with medium scaled data driven business solutions. It supports client server architecture and at the same time it also provides parallel user access to the databases. Such kind of database management system also sounds good for web technologies. In normal practice MYSQL other DBMS is used more frequent on web due to the compatibility of MYSQL with LINUX / UNIX based operating systems. MSSQL is only compatible with Windows based operating systems. Similar is the case with ASP.NET, from the introduction of MSSQL 2005 and ASP.NET both are known to be the best for each other for web technologies.The university website is also using the same combination and that is why we also are using the same technology. electronic network ServicesWeb Servi ces are a technology which is derived to provide a central source not only to provide data but also to receive data. There are many pros when we talk about this technology.Its expandability is transmittable from web. Similar to a website a web service can also have unlimited number of clients, only constrained by the hosting server of the web service. This was the biggest reason to use web services in the designed solution.It does not cause change in the existing architecture of the system, but just add to the existing system. This kind of integration ability was very useful for the designed system.Web service use a protocol named SOAP which uses xml to transfer data to/from the clients of the web service. The global nature of xml enables another option in web services, that they do not restrict their clients to be the one kind of system. Any system, which can generate the kind of xml strategy required for a web service and can receive and interpret the returned xml document from the web service, can call it.Another reason that made us to use the web services was the ease to call them, we called them from our desktop application where they worked just like normal routine calls, and it made it easier to proceed with the same system.Crystal ReportsThis technology refers to generating reports from vast data to support business decision in our system we used crystal reports to generate several(prenominal) reports which are help full in providing the results regarding the library information to higher management. The reason to use this technology was to make it easier to generate reports. We concluded the ease with crystal reports from there automatic database interpretation and retrieving objects from the database schema to design reports. Reports designed in crystal reports are also not very specific to IT their design can be modified by any room decorator so university is not constrained to us for required change by and by the deployment.Client Side.NETThe n ame Dot Net refers to a Microsoft technology example which is intended to design managed and secure applications. The reason we used this framework was the ease and speed of development which is supported by .NET. The application, build on .NET assemblies needs .NET to be installed on the system where the application has to run. Our client application requires pre installation of .NET on the hosting system to run on it. The application was built using .NET 2.0 so at least .NET 2.0 or any newer version can support the application.Visual CIt is a programming lyric poem with is supported by .NET development environments. The reason to choose this language was to focus on the functionality of the system rather than bug fixing.Communication MethodThe server side of the system has to be deployed on a web server with the existing website. So considering this the system uses Ethernet as the communication medium to send and receive data from web services. To call/discover the web services the system uses HTTP protocol to send and receive requests to web services.Browser engine roomWhile developing the web based interface, we have tried to make it well formed on most famous browsers which are IE6, Firefox 3.0 and chromium-plate 1.0. In all of these browsers it has almost similar and well formed look and feel. Another browser is targeted theoretically, which is safari. But this browser is not tested. Regarding to studied problems most of the layout is static which has a complete compatibility in all browsers. No layout uses commanding or relative positioning.System EvaluationintroductionThe library information management system is designed and developed using the client server architecture and is implemented

Entrepreneurship In Contexts Of Business Management Commerce Essay

Entrepreneurship In Contexts Of Business Management vocation EssayThe stemma world foot be seen as a complex system of individuals and logical argument brasss that, in a justify market delivery such as South Africa, involves the activity of transforming hardly options into products and go in holy order to meet the need of guild (Du Toit, Erasmus S actdom, 20074). Business musical arrangements accordingly solve the funda mental stinting problem of how to ensure the highest doable propitiation of needs with scarce resources (Cronje, Du Toit Motlatla, 200123). In order to construe how the vexation organisation satisfies the needs of nightspot in a relinquish market thriftiness, it is great to understand the driving force behind the communication channel organisation, to wit the entrepreneur (Du Toit et al., 200737). The entrepreneur is at the heart of a free market economy and establishes furrow organisations and in doing so takes jobs and wealth (Cronje e t al., 20013).Entrepreneurs and advancedly cable insane asylum is original to the bugation of the South Afri flowerpot economy and to the future socio-political st grapplency of the country (Von Broembsen, Wood Herrington, 20055). Due to low sparingal growth, high un usage and an off train of p everyplacety in South Africa, entrepreneurship becomes a critical base (Rwigema Venter, 200427). As menti angiotensin-converting enzymed in Chapter 1, one of the around historic groups of entrepreneurs at heart the economy with considerable potential to contribute to stinting growth, frugal ontogeny and employment gene proportionalityn atomic number 18 business women (Blumberg Kenan, 2008 Ahl, 2006 Negash, 2006 Blumberg, 2005 Republic of South Africa, 2005 Baker, Aldrich Liou, 1997). Therefore, this consume localisees on the strategical entrepreneurial behaviour of business women in South Africa.An break down understanding of entrepreneurial behaviour and decision -making would change business guidance students to better understand how business organisations function in todays competitive milieu. In this chapter the fancy of business focussing is addressed. The chapter starts by introducing the subject of political economy, followed by an overview of business direction as a discipline. This section leads to a discussion of the descent surrounded by frugals and business counsel. Then follows a section which elaborates on entrepreneurship and strategic commission as well as a section how these twain fields overlap. Special attention is given to entrepreneurship and strategic perplexity in an attempt to clarify the position of this study in a business perplexity context. The position of the study inwardly the field of sparings and business prudence is illustrated in depict 2.1.Figure 2.1 The position of the study inwardly the field of economicals and business care2.2 ECONOMICSEconomics has been be in various shipway in it s more than 200 twelvemonth history (Arnold, 20043). It is because useful to review a number of descriptions of what political economy thinks. Alfred Marshall (1824-1924) resistantly defined economics as the study of gentleman in the ordinary business of life it is the study of wealth and of man. Lionel Robbins (1898-1984) description focussed on choice outputs that erect be get hold ofd with scarce resources. He defined economics as the science which studies human behaviour as a kind in the midst of ends and scarce means which put on alternative uses. Similarly, Milton Friedman (1912-2006) said that economics is the science of how a particular(a) society solves its economic problems. He then argues that an economic problem exists whenever scarce means argon utilise to satisfy alternative ends (Arnold, 20043). It seems from the above definitions that economics is the study of how society manages its scarce resources (Mankiw, 20044). much comprehensively, economics i s the study of how individuals and societies deal with the fact that wants atomic number 18 greater than the especial(a) resources available to satisfy those wants (Arnold, 20043).The condition, under which wants argon greater than the limited resources available to satisfy those wants, is called scarcity (Arnold, 20043). This endeavour to strive the highest accomplishable satisf implement of needs with scarce resources is known as the fundamental economic precept (Smit, Cronje, Brevis Vrba, 200720) and every economic system is subject to it (Cronje et al., 200123). That being so, it follows that each percentage of an economic system, including a business organisation, is also subject to the economic principle (Nieman Bennett, 20066 Cronje et al., 200123).In order to create wealth and satisfy wants, as implied in the definitions, resources atomic number 18 utilised (Nickels, McHugh McHugh, 20089). Resources are divided into quaternion broad categories, called factors of p roduction. These factors of production are land, labour, capital, and entrepreneurship (Arnold, 20045). Land includes all natural resources, such as minerals, forests, water and unimproved land. Labour, on the new(prenominal) hand, consists of the physical and mental talents mountain contribute to the production attend to. Capital consists of produced goods that enkindle be apply as inputs for further production. Entrepreneurship, the focus of this study, refers to the particular talent that some individuals hold up for organising the resources of land, labour, and capital to produce goods, set about refreshed business opportunities, and develop new ways of doing things (Arnold, 20045). It furthermore refers to the initiative of putting unneurotic a spue of production factors in various combinations in diverse businesses to satisfy the legion(predicate) needs of consumers (Nieman Bennett 20066).The field of economics is traditionally divided into two broad subfields, nam ely, microeconomics and macroeconomics (Mankiw, 20044). On the one hand, microeconomics deals with human behaviour and choices as they relate to relatively small units and studies inter saves through individual markets, given scarcity and government rule (Arnold, 200427). In other words, microeconomics is the study of how households and homes make decisions and how they interact in specialised markets. On the other hand, macroeconomics deals with human behaviour and choices as they relate to highly aggregate markets or to the wide economy (Arnold, 20044). Macroeconomics is thus the study of economy-wide phenomena (Mankiw, 200427). The wassail study is related to microeconomics as it deals with individuals i.e. business women and how they make decisions to allocate scarce resources.Neoclassical economists are provokeed in decision-making, especially the follows and incentives associated with economic choices (Hicks, 1937). The decision-making process plays an important role i n any business organisation and is of importance for problem-solving, the information of business plans, and goal-directed behaviour (Gray, 2001). In macroeconomics, a neoclassical synthesis was developed in the early 1950s, based on an desegregation of Keyness imaginations and the ideas of earlier economists (Blanchard, 2006576). These theories had a fundamental impact on the in advance(p) understanding of firms and their relation to the environment.In economics theories are useful for explaining and predicting economic behaviour. Theories are developed to explain observed phenomena in scathe of a set of basic rules and assumptions (Pindyck Rubinfeld, 20055). The speculation of the firm consists of a number of economic theories which describe the disposition of the firm, company, or corporation, including its humanity, its behaviour, and its relationship with the market (Coase, 1937), which impact business focus scholars understanding of the field. The theory of the firm is based on a simple assumption namely that firms try to maximise their pro agrees (Pindyck Rubinfeld, 20055). The theory of the firm furthermore provides an explanation of how a firm makes cost-minimising production decisions and how its cost varies with output (Pindyck Rubinfeld, 2005188). In simplified terms, the theory of the firm attempts to answer questions regarding the existence of firms, the boundaries of firms, the organisation of firms and questions concerning heterogeneity of firm actions and performances (Coase, 1937).To summarise, the field of economics focuses on how society manages its scarce resources, also called factors of production, to satisfy the needs of society. In order to understand how entrepreneurship, as one of the factors of production, influences wealth population in the economy, one has to instruct the role of business management which is concerned with the management aspects of the factors of production.2.3 strain charge AS A DISCIPLINEThe orig ins of traditional management nominate be traced back to the need for efficiency and effectiveness (Weymes, 2004340). The endeavour to achieve the highest achievable satisfaction of needs with scarce resources is known as the fundamental economic principle (Smit et al., 200720). Within economic and management sciences, traditional business management is subject to this principle, and the managements task is thus is to decide how an organisation nookie achieve the highest possible output with the least possible input (Smit et al., 200720 Scheepers, 20097). More specifically, it entails an examination of the factors, methods and principles that enable a business to function as profitably as possible in order to maximise its profits (Nieman, 200539). In short, the individual business green light should focus on realising the economic principle (Scheepers, 20097).The study of business management depends on comprehensive and on-going investigate and the examination of management p roblems, the testing of approaches and principles as well as experimentation with methods and techniques. Business management is thus an applied science that studies how business organisations can best be directed towards realising their objectives given their limited resources (Du Toit et al., 200727).Klekamp (196854) defines business management as achieving organisational goals through people. It is useful to consider this time-worn definition through the linear stead of three fundamental schools of management. These schools are the traditional school of management the behavioural school of management and the harbord school of management.It appears that the traditional school sees the acquisition of organisational goals as a process. It further suggests that the process is universal i.e. the distinguishing characteristic of a manager is the mastery of her discipline and the application of her art rather that the environment in which it is practiced. The behavioural school, on the other hand, focuses on the achievement of goals, as the process does, but dwells to a large extent upon why people act as they do when under the influence of the management process and in the company of people grouped together for the accomplishment of organisational goals. Alternatively, the quantitative school proposes that the achievement of goals depends to a large extent on the select of the decisions made in the practice of the management science (Klekamp, 196854).Although, business management has been defined by a number of authors, fundamental to most definitions is the idea that management is a social process of planning, coordination, watch, and indigence (Pettinger, 2002 Hodgetts, 1981114). One can infer that business management therefore involves satisfying needs with a limited amount of resources through planning, coordination, control, and motivation of these resources (Ward, 200819).The many definitions offered in the writings on management demonstrate the w ide differences of opinion among writers and experts about the tasks and activities of management. Figure 2.2 illustrates the four fundamental tasks that are singled out as the most important activities of the management process. These are planning, organising, leading and control (Du Toit et al., 2007129).Figure 2.2 The four fundamental management tasks represented as a processSOURCE adequate from Du Toit et al., 2007130The following brief description of the fundamental management tasks clarifies the opinion of management and the management process. The first fundamental task of management, namely planning, determines the relegation and goals of the organisation, including the way goals are to be reached in the long-term, and the resources needed for this task (Du Toit et al., 2007130). strategic management is an integral part of planning and is the process of developing a vision, mission and long-term objectives for the organisation as a whole. According to Nieman and Bennett ( 200214), organisations make headway if their strategies are appropriate for the circumstances they face, and feasible in respect of their resources, skills and capabilities. strategical management is discussed in more depth in Section 2.6.The fleck fundamental task in the management process is organising. This task refers to the development of a frame take or organisational structure to indicate how people, equipment and materials should be industrious to reach the predetermined goals (Du Toit et al., 2007130). Leading, the third fundamental task, entails directing the human resources of the business and motivating them (Du Toit et al., 2007130) in order to get them to perform in such a way that the organisational objectives can be achieved (Nieman Bennett, 200699). The final fundamental task, namely control, implies that managers should constantly establish whether the business is on a proper bod towards the accomplishment of its goals (Du Toit et al., 2007131) as well as stru cturing the activities of the organisation to facilitate the increase of its objectives (Nieman Bennett, 200693).The fundamental task of business management is, however, not only to plan, organise, lead, and to control but to study those factors, principles and methods that will lead a business organisation, as a component of the prevailing economic system, to reach its objectives against the background of limited resources (Du Toit et al., 200728) within the microeconomic field of study. In the following section the relationship mingled with economics and business management is discussed. Particular attention is paying(a) to the discussion of a business organisation as a component of the economic system, specifically how, as a need-satisfying institution in the free market economy, it provides for the needs of the community (Cronje et al., 200132).2.4 human relationship BETWEEN ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENTOn the one hand, economics, as a social science, studies how milit ary man and society exercise choices concerning diametrical ways of utilising their scarce resources in order to satisfy unlimited needs. On the other hand, business management as an applied science is concerned with the study of those institutions in a particular economic system which satisfy the needs of a community. Economics examines the entire economic system, while business management limits its studies to one component of the economic system, namely the individual organisation (Cronje et al., 200123).Business management is thus near linked with microeconomics and the theory of the firm as the purpose of business management is to hold an organisation to the economic principle (Cronje et al., 200123). Business management, as a field of study, is concerned with the management aspects of the inputs, the conversion process, and the outputs (Nieman Bennett, 20066). More specifically, it entails an examination of the factors, methods and principles that enable a business to func tion as productively as possible in order to maximise profits (Nieman Bennett, 20024).In order to understand how the business organisation satisfies the needs of society in a free market economy, such as South Africa, one has to understand one of the driving forces behind the business organisation, namely the entrepreneur (Du Toit et al., 200737).2.5 ENTREPRENEURSHIPEconomic development can be directly attributed to the level of entrepreneurial activity in a country (Bird, 1989 Schumpeter, 1934) as entrepreneurial businesses are responsible for growth and job creation in the economy (Nieman, Hough Nieuwenhuizen, 20033). Entrepreneurship is the process that causes change in the economic system through mental institutions of individuals who respond to opportunities in the market. Entrepreneurs are contest living assumptions as well as conventional rules of business and are creating foster in novel and creative ways for themselves and society (Morris, Kuratko Covin, 20083). It is therefore important to study entrepreneurship in an increasingly globalised world where survival lots depends on people who are driven by opportunity and who seek to achieve their goals in a sustainable way (Rwigema Venter, 20049).Although the term entrepreneurship has been in use for over 200 years, considerable disagreement remains over its meaning. Although the disagreement seems superior if definitions of entrepreneurship amidst disciplines are compared, a consensus is found if definitions produced by specialists in the same field, are compared (Nieman et al., 20039). Economists, for example, tend to agree that entrepreneurs are associated with mental institution and are seen as the driving forces of development (Filion, 1998). The behaviourists, on the other hand, try to understand the entrepreneur as a person and ascribe to the characteristics of mainly the on the table interpretative models. The behavioural approach places emphasis on explaining how decisions are ta ken within the firm. However, any theory of entrepreneurship must be flexible and multidimensional to reflect its multidisciplinary roots (Nieman et al., 20039 Filion, 1998).While multiple definitions of entrepreneurship could be found in the literature (Sharma Chrisman, 1999 Venkataraman, 1997 Schumpeter, 1983 Kirzner, 1973), no single definition has been authorized by the whole entrepreneurship field (Scheepers, 200725). For the purposes of the present study entrepreneurship can be defined as the process of creating value by bring together a unique combination of resources to attempt an opportunity (Barringer Ireland, 20065 Stevenson, Roberts Grousback, 1989). Since this definition implies that (1) entrepreneurship may vary in terms of the extent and number of generation it occurs (2) entrepreneurship occurs in various contexts for example start-ups and incorporate firms (3) it is a process that can be managed and (4) it creates value and it is opportunity-driven (Scheepe rs, 2009).Firstly, regarding the implication that entrepreneurship may vary in terms of the extent and number of times it occurs, it is useful to examine the thought of entrepreneurial intensity (EI). The term of EI was pioneered by Morris and Sexton (1996), who view EI as a function of the peak and frequency of entrepreneurship (Morris, 199842). Frequency of entrepreneurship refers to the number of times an enterprise acts entrepreneurially. In other words, the number of entrepreneurial events that takes place within a company over a given period of time (Morris et al., 200869 Morris, 199842).The degree of entrepreneurship could be assessed against the background of three dimensions innovativeness, risk-taking, and proactiveness (Erasmus Scheepers, 2008 Morris, 199837). Innovativeness, the first dimension of the degree of entrepreneurship, refers to the ability to generate ideas that will culminate in the production of new products, assistants and technologies. Risk-taking, the second dimension, involves the determination and courage to make resources available for projects that have uncertain outcomes. Attempts are made to manage these risks by researching a market, recruiting and employing versatile staff among other strategies. Proactiveness, the third dimension, indicates top managements stance towards opportunities, encouragement of initiative, competitive aggressiveness and confidence in pursuing enhanced competitiveness (Morris, 199818, 41-43).The concept of EI is illustrated in Figure 2.3. The two-dimensional matrix, referred to as the entrepreneurial grid, shows the frequency of entrepreneurial events on the vertical axis, and the degree to which these events are innovative, risk-taking and proactive on the crosswise axis (Morris et al., 200869). EI must become a key activity ratio that is monitored on an ongoing basis within organisations. Assessment at the level of the organisation can be apply for various purposes to benchmark and drag le vels of entrepreneurship establish norms and draw industry comparisons establish entrepreneurship goals develop strategies and assess relationships between EI and organisation performance variables over time (Morris et al., 200878).Figure 2.3 The entrepreneurial gridSOURCE Morris et al., 200870Secondly, as implied in the definition of Stevenson et al. (1989) entrepreneurship in macrocosm can occur in various organisational contexts (Morris et al., 200811). These organisational contexts may range from establishing a new enterprise, growing an existing small business, or innovation within large organisations (Scheepers, 200927). In other words, entrepreneurship can also be used to describe entrepreneurial actions within a firm. In this instance, an entrepreneurial firm creates wealth by concentrating on being innovative, proactive, and risk-taking (Ireland, Hitt, Camp Sexton, 200151). Corporate entrepreneurship is a term used to describe entrepreneurial behaviour inside existing org anisations (Morris et al., 200811). Within these different contexts the definition above still applies, since the process and inevitable inputs are similar, even if the outputs differ (Scheepers, 2009), therefore the female entrepreneurial behaviour examined in this study is still regarded as entrepreneurship, even though it may occur in two contexts, namely within a corporate context or in an independent venture.Thirdly, as stipulated in the definition, entrepreneurship can be viewed as a process. Therefore even though entrepreneurship and innovation are inherently unpredictable, chaotic and create ambiguity entrepreneurship is a process, and as such it can be managed. Entrepreneurial events are characterised by different stages, such as opportunity identification, business concept definition, assessment of the resource requirements, acquisition of the needed resources, and then the management and harvesting of the business (Morris Kuratko, 2002).Finally, the ability to act entre preneurially is linked to the perception of opportunity. The pursuit of opportunities also emphasises that those opportunities, which create the greatest value, could be exploited.It is important to note that entrepreneurship differs from management. There are important differences between the entrepreneurial and managerial functions, as well as the expertise and get bynce with regard to each (Nieman et al., 200313). Management is a social process of planning, coordination, control, and motivation (Ward, 200819). Management thus involves getting things done through other people and is, in a sense, a transformation process, where human, technical, and conceptual skills are used to transform inputs into outputs (Morris et al., 200812). Entrepreneurship, on the other hand, is the process of creating value by bring together a unique combination of resources to exploit an opportunity (Barringer Ireland, 20065 Stevenson, Roberts Grousback, 1989). Entrepreneurs envision the future, re cognise emerging patterns, identify untapped opportunities, and create innovations to exploit those opportunities (Morris et al., 200812).Figure 2.4 contrasts the primary roles of the manager with those of the entrepreneur. The figure shows that managers are charged with the economic and effective utilisation of the resources under their control. They tend to be focussed on optimising current operations. Entrepreneurs, alternatively, demonstrate creative capabilities in obtaining resources, overcoming obstacles, and persisting in implementing new ideas that represent change (Morris et al., 200812).Figure 2.4 Comparing and combining key roles of managers and entrepreneursTHE entrepreneurial MANAGERSOURCE Adapted from Morris et al., 200813One of the general approaches to management methods with the purpose of creating a sustainable competitive advantage is that of strategic management (Cronje et al., 200124). According to Nieman and Bennett (200214), strategy is fundamentally about a fit between the organisations resources and the markets targeted by it, as well as the ability to sustain fit over time and in changing circumstances and to create and notice a competitive advantage within a given market. Therefore, the nature and characteristics of strategic management is discussed in the following section.2.6 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT some(prenominal) schools of thought with different opinions about the nature and scope of strategy can be distinguished from the literature (French, 200913). There is also a wish of a universally accepted definition of strategic management. However, central to most definitions is the notion that strategic management is the process through which managers formulate, implement, and monitor action plans to optimise the achievement of key goals (Rwigema Venter, 2004195).Barney and Arikan (2001140) define strategic management as a firms theory of how it can gain superior performance in the markets within which it operates. Venkataraman and Sarasvathy (2001651) define the subject of strategic management as having to do with the methods used to create value and the ensuing struggle to capture a significant share of that value. Hough, Thompson, Strickland and Gamble (20084) propose that strategy consists of the competitive moves and business approaches that managers employ in order to grow the firm, attract and please customers, compete successfully, conduct operations, and achieve the targeted levels of organisational performance. For the purpose of the present study strategic management is defined as a process that deals with the long-term entrepreneurial work of the organisation, with organisational renewal and growth, and more particularly, with developing and utilising strategy, which is a guide to the organisations operations (Lyles, 1990363). strategical management has gained prominence in recent years as organisations compete in volatile environments (Rwigema Venter, 2004197). The dynamic environment in which or ganisations operate poses ongoing management and leadership challenges, marked by complexity, uncertainty, and ambiguity (Rwigema Venter, 200493). Traditional business models are often no longer applicable and some managers are abandoning conventional approaches to strategy as they search for new ways to achieve a competitive advantage in a turbulent environment. strategical management paradigms have shifted from essentially static to more dynamic worldviews (Scheepers, 200746).To summarise, in todays fast-paced competitive environment, firms face the need to be increasingly supple and adaptive (Ireland Webb, 200749). Ireland et al. (200153) state that successfully integrating entrepreneurial and strategic actions improves a firms ability to grow and create wealth. The following section elaborates on the relationship between entrepreneurship and strategic management and on how these two fields overlap.2.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIPWhile the fi elds of strategic management and entrepreneurship have developed largely independently of each other, they twain focus on how firms adapt to environmental change and exploit opportunities created by uncertainties and discontinuities in the creation of wealth (Hitt, Ireland, Camp Sexton, 2001480 Venkataraman Sarasvathy, 2001480). Creating wealth is at the heart of both entrepreneurship and strategic management. Figure 2.5 illustrates how firms create wealth by using entrepreneurial actions and strategic actions within different domains.Figure 2.5 Creating wealth through entrepreneurial and strategic actionsSOURCE Ireland et al., 200151As illustrated in Figure 2.5, firms can create wealth by using entrepreneurial actions and strategic actions within different domains. These domains are vital in the process of creating sustainable income streams by developing and exploiting competitive advantages. (Ireland et al., 200151). strategical management and entrepreneurship overlaps in term s of their interest in venture creation, novel strategies, growth and performance of organisations (Scheepers, 200746). Entrepreneurship involves identifying and exploiting entrepreneurial opportunities. However, to create the most value entrepreneurial firms also need to act strategically. An integration of entrepreneurial and strategic thinking is therefore necessary (Hitt et al., 2001479).In the antecedent section entrepreneurship was defined as the process of creating value by bringing together a unique combination of resources in order to exploit an opportunity (Barringer Ireland, 20065 Stevenson et al., 1989). As such, entrepreneurial actions, on the one hand, entail creating new resources or combining existing resources in new ways to develop and commercialise new products, move into new markets, and/ or service new customers (Hitt et al., 2001480). On the other hand, strategic management entails the set of commitments, decisions, and actions designed and executed to produc e a competitive advantage and earn above-average returns (Hitt et al., 2001480). Strategic management thus provides the context for entrepreneurial actions (Ireland, Hitt, Camp Sexton, 2001). Entrepreneurship is about creation strategic management is about how advantage is established and maintained from what is created (Venkataraman Sarasvathy, 2001).Entrepreneurship is concerned with how the opportunity to create value in society is discovered and acted upon by some individuals. Strategic management is concerned with the methods used to create this value and the ensuing struggle to capture a significant share of that value by individuals and firms (Venkataraman Sarasvathy, 2001650-651). Strategic Management has to do with the achievement of ends obtaining market share, profit and sustained competitive advantage. Then again, entrepreneurship has to do with the achievement of beginnings creating markets, firms and products (Venkataraman Sarasvathy, 2001651).Thus, entrepreneuri al and strategic perspectives should be integrated to examine entrepreneurial behaviour. For the purpose of the present study this approach is called strategic entrepreneurial behaviour (SEB). SEB is entrepreneurial action and behaviour with a strategic perspective. It is the integration of entrepreneurial (i.e. opportunity-seeking behaviour) and strategic (i.e. advantage-seeking behaviour) perspectives in developing and taking actions to create wealth (Hitt et al., 2001480-481).2.8 CHAPTER SUMMARYThis chapter attempts to provide perspective on the position of this study within the broad field of economics and business management. It defines the concept of business management as satisfying consumer needs with a limited amount of resources, through the planning, coordination, control, and motivation of these resources. Based on this definition of business management, the chapter provides an explanation of how business management stems from economics. Economics is defined as the alloc ation of scarce resources in order to fulfil the unlimited needs of society. This section leads to a discussion of the relationship between economics and business management. The main link between economics and business management is that the one studies the economic system as a whole, while the other studies a single component of that system.

Industrial Relation System In Japan Management Essay

industrial similitude System In Japan Management tryindustrial transaction usu tout ensembley refer to traffichips amongst travail and metropolis that grow out of date. There ar two vocalizationies in the booking sexual forg etceteraurseship- advertise and concern. Both parties need to roleplay in a spirit of cooperation, adjustment, and accommodation. In their own mutual interest reliable rules for co-existence atomic number 18 framed and adhered to. Opinions or so IR in Japan argon extremely diversified. The main(prenominal) occupy regarding IR appears to be whether Japan can maintain the vitality and flexibleness to cope with the budges in the industrial structure and technology in a stagnant world economy. The lack of opposition and dispute mingled with grok and management whitethorn be the most eventful feature for summarizing do work-management similaritys in modern Japan when making inter subject field comparisons. The study highlights IR in Japan and pointing out lesson that Bangladesh and Sri Lanka can take. The query is based on desk study. Moreover, the recomm containation would be helpful to the practiti championrs, researchers, planners, constitution urinaters and academicians, who are k nonty in the refer country.Keywords Industrial Relations (IR) Employment Capital and LabourJEL variety M1, M1, M54IntroductionThe traffichip between employer and employee or backup centres is called Industrial Relation (IR). Harmonious dealingship is necessary for both employers and employees to safeguard the interests of the both the parties of the production. In order to maintain good descent with the employees, the main functions of every physical composition should avoid any dispute with them or circuittle it as aboriginal(a)(a) as possible so as to ensure industrial mollification and higher productivity. Human Resources Management (HRM) is mainly bear on with the man relation in industry because the main theme of HRM is to draw and quarter the work make by the human race power and it fails in its objectives if good industrial relation is maintained. In opposite words good Industrial Relation centre industrial peace which is necessary for better and higher productions.IR may be chthonianstood in both inter and intra terms-that is between employers and employees, between employees and employees and overly between employers and employers. Such diverse transaction are the effect of modern industrial production, entailing an enormous body of corporate work and involving the corporal labour of a huge number of people in an enterprise. Of all these dealings, however the one between employers and employees is of paramount grandeur under the transcription of capitalist transaction of production. Some authors define the term industrial dealings as well as either the full range of rule brass the work stead (Dunlop, 1958), or a study of the institutions for job regulations (Allen,1 975) or even the support of stability and regularity in industry(Richard,1981)IR is overly concerned with determination of wages and conditions of betrothal. IR and human relations are distinctly two indispensable factors in industry, one counting on the other we can comport good industrial relations in an industry, notwithstanding when bad human relations in the resembling stoolment and sin versa. Good industrial relations provide the necessary background for human relations. In any undertaking, good relations between the management and workers depend upon the degree of mutual confidence, which can be established. This, in turn, depends upon the recognition by the employees of the goodwill and integrity of the management in the day-to-day handling of questions, which are of mutual concern. The first requisite for the development of good industrial relations is a good labour policy. The aim of such(prenominal) a policy should be to secure the best possible co-operation of the employees.Every employee should have the prospect to contri howevere not just his services, but alike his suggestions and ideas towards the common effort.The underlying needs of an industrial worker are alleviatedom from fear, security of commerce and freedom from want. Adequate food, better health, clothing and housing are human requirements. The human heart harbors secret pride and invariably responds to courtesy and forgivingness just as it revolts to tyranny and fear. An surroundings, where he is contented with his job, assured of a bright future, and provided with his basic needs in life means an automated teller machine of good IR.IR has some(prenominal) roles in the industrial development in any country two fold objectives of good industrial relations are to preserve industrial peace and to secure industrial-operations. If we have to establish industrial peace, the workers must be assured of fair wages, good conditions of work, creditworthy working, holidays a nd nominal facilities of life. The objectives of good industrial relations should be development and throw out of industry, through democratic methods, stability, total well-being and happiness of the workers, and industrial peace. so, industrial peace is the fruit of good industrial relations.The following objectives have been considered.To get word the philosophy and concept of IRTo focussing on extradite scenario of IR policy in Japan,Bangladesh and Sri LankaTo suggest some possible solutions for developing and change the IR to Bangladesh, Sri Lankan from Japanese perspectives.Material and MethodsGiven the reputation of the present study, it was needful to collect data from the secondary sources. The authors were eer careful of the objectives of the study and stash away data accordingly to achieve those objectives. Secondary data were collected from research studies, books, journals, newspapers and ongoing academic working papers. The collected data may be affected an d analysed in order to make the present study multi invention to the practitioners, researchers, planners, policy makers and academicians of the concern area.Analyses and FindingsThe analyses of findings have been discussed under the following sub-heads.Industrial RelationsIR plays a critical role in establishing and maintaining industrial re public (Monappa, 1995). IR indicates the status of the relationship between the employers and employees in general. Better relationship is always designed which, however, rarely remains in a commensurate stage and in a static position because of various interior(a) and external factors. The concept of IR has a wide meaning. The expression IR by itself means relationship that emerges out of day-to-day working and draw of labour and management. But when interpreted in its wider sense it includes the relationship between an employee and employer in the course of running of an industry and may project itself to spheres which may transgress to the areas of quality control, market gradeing, price fixation and disposition of profits among others (Johri,1969). IR, thus, when taken in its wider meaning, is a set of financial interdependence including historical, scotch, cordial, psychological, demographic, technological, occupational and wakeless variables (Singh, 1968).Industrial Relations in BangladeshDemocracy in the larger fellowship is a prime and essential condition for the development of industrial relations. In Bangladesh, the extent of democracy is very poor people. It is surprising to note that after independence, the ordinary changes in political sympathies and increase of military rule during 1975-1979 and 1982-1990 hampered the democratic surround for industrial relations in general and divvy up trade unionism in particular.Since independence, every government has been found to participate in the clientele union activities directly through the embodimentation of labour front. collect to government int erventions, the industrial peace and productivity were affected a number of times. For example Awami federation government maintained close contact with the workers through Jatiya Sramik League (JSL) the Bangladesh bailiwick Party (BNP) government did so through Bangladesh Jatiyatabadi Sramik Dal (BJSD), and Ershad government did the same through Jatiya Sramik Party (JSP).The direct of industrialization in Bangladesh is very poor. The level of employment is very poor too. Here the supply of labour is always much higher than that of the demand for labour. So the labour cost is low. break of a total civilian labour force of 70 cardinal about 2 trillions are unemployed. Here the industrial workers are not at all family unit conscious. Due to very poor literacy level, workers of Bangladesh are completely in the dark about their rights and obligations. The labour force intricacy rate in trade unionism is only 12%. Due to improper physical fitness and lack of sufficient skill the productivity of our workers is very low. As a result, they cannot contribute towards the higher level of positiveness to the employers, on that pointby causing their level of wages to remain low. Till at present the Government of Bangladesh could not ensure a satisfactory level of minimum wage for the workers (Khan Taher, 2009).Multiplicity of trade unions is one of the great weaknesses of labour governing in Bangladesh. As a result of weak susceptibility, trade unions in Bangladesh is facing a number of problems like increasing governmental influence, inter and intra-union rivalries, unhealthy competition in collective bargaining agent (CBA) election, employers, course to avoid CBA process and develop opportunities among the trade union leaders etc. The opportunistic nature of trade union leadership has been responsible for poor labour movements. Most of the time, the trade union leaders acted as agents of employers and of the political governments.Industrial Relations in S ri LankaIR in Sri Lanka has arrived at the cross roads which makes an interesting study for the Human Researches Specialist. The Sri Lankas shifting from a centrally planned economy to a market economy in 1977. Since 1977, the socio-economic changes were greatly influenced by the radical changes in the external environment, globalization, information technology (IT) alteration and changing consumer needs. These changes in the socio-economic strategy of the country have resulted in contradictions and conflicts in the sphere of IR. With the emergence of the market economy and resultant competition, the achieving of the desired economic growth was the challenge for the government. At micro level, origin corporations fought for their survival in a competitive environment. This situation has provided a new challenge to partners involved in IR.Historically, the state has played a key role in managing IR in Sri Lanka. The state intervention has much in the nature of labour legislation and in the area of dispute settlement. Since early twentieth century, these laws have been enacted to protect the less privileged partner i.e. Labour/Employee. Hence the labour laws in Sri Lanka have a bias towards the employee and this rigidity has adversely affected the progress of business. For example, the Termination of Employment second 1971 prohibits the termination of employment except in case of disciplinary matters without the permission of the Commissioner General of Labour. even up though plethora of labour laws protects the employees, it has been a hindrance to the business activity. The business comm bingle has made several appeals to the Government to effect appropriate such changes in labour laws to meet the current environment. Such changes in the form of entrepreneurial labour laws are urgently required not only to meet the needs of the Sri Lankan economy, but also to facilitate the working population. existence a developing country, it is natural that the state needs to protect certain less privileged class of the society from the economic transformation. In addition, in a democratic country, the working class is a source of strength to political parties. In this context, the present Peoples Alliance Government speculate the Workers choose to safeguard the rights and privileges of the working people. The salient features of the Charter (a) The commitment to the rules of the Declaration of Philadelphia and the labour standards withdrawed by the Inter guinea pig Labour Organizations (ILO) (b) Recognition of trade Unions (c) cost increase of collective bargaining (d) Strengthening of existing laws to protect employees interest (e) delimitate casual, temporary and others forms of non permanent employment and (f) Bringing forth a encrypt of industrial symmetry.Employers potently felt that their views have not been duly considered and it was not the opportune item to bring forward this piece of legislation. The employers argued that t he requirement was not for a workers Charter, but for an Employment Charter. Even though six age have lapsed, the government has still to bring in legislation for this purpose except an amendment to the Industrial Disputes Act providing recognition to trade unions and prevention unfair labour practices. The reluctance on the part of the government to provide levelheaded enforcement to the workers Charter indicates that the government despite, an election pledge, has realized that such labour laws should not be allowed to restrain the development of a free market economy. De sylva stated that Labour law always presents the perennial problem of balance the interests of capital and labour and at the same time protecting public interest. Again, more than any other branch of the law, labour laws reflects governments or societys clean tone and attitude towards social issues.The Employers Federation of Ceylon (EFC) was established in 1930 as a counter measure to deal with trade union s under this musical mode employer to be united and disciplined to managing labour issues and more importantly, the need for build up a mutual discernment between employers and workers. EFC has taken 50 years or more to reach the 200 mark in membership. However, since 1980, during the period of 20 years, the membership grew to over 500. The reasons for this growth besides the free market policies introduced in 1977, was the direct result of the need for industrial relations service. The lack of expertise within the workplaces to handle industrial relations prompted the employers to anticipate support and take careance of EFC. It is also large to note that since 1980, the EFC has made a fundamental change in their approach. It shifted from their emphasis of providing legal services to assist the employers in adopting better Human Resources Management (HRM) practices in managing people at their workplaces.At the micro level, the relationship between the employees and the trade u nions has been adversarial. The history of legion(predicate) conflicts between the employers and employees during the colonial rule and the post-independence era has greatly contributed to the development of this situation. Amongst other reasons (a) Being unaware of the significance of trade unions in national and organisational context (b) Lack of understanding in modern management techniques, (c) electronegative approach of pot Unions (d) Lack of professional management in HR (e) Concealed hostility of the employers based on bounded rationality.Nevertheless, the bring have made employers realize that such antagonistic approach would lead to unequal relationship, loss of work hours resulting in from industrial disputes thus affecting the productivity. With the emergence of market economy, this would adversely affect the ability of the enterprise to be competitive. In this context, more employers have begun to adopt an approach of understanding towards trade unions and also mak ing concerted efforts to establish cordial relationship with the workforce by adopting sound HR practices.From the inception of the trade union movement in 1930s, trade unions have adopted an antagonistic approach towards management. This may be due to Sri Lankan trade unions becoming appendages of Marxist/Leninist political parties espousing a class struggle and having a history of agitation against colonialism/establishment. Despite the rapid slicing of Marxism/Leninism globally, some trade unions continue this class struggle approach without understanding the changes in socio-economic environment. Trade unions have been comfortable in adopting this adversarial attitude and make every endeavour to keep their membership away from the management. Another significant characteristic of the trade union movement is the politicization in which major trade unions are linked to major political parties. The political parties continue to cut across unions as source of power. It has been ob served that on certain occasions, the behaviour of trade unions has been motivated by political objectives alternatively than the interest of the working class. This along with multiplicity of trade unions have had an adverse impact on the unity and strength of trade unions.However, since 1977, this situation has been subjected to gradual change. (1) The competition in the food market has prompted the trade unions to review their approach. The antagonistic approach would affect the business, which could result in loss in employment. (2) novel generation of workers are more concerned about their wel uttermoste and personal interest rather than espousing political ideologies. This is to the full demonstrated from the fact that the number of trade Unions have decreased from 1636 in 1977 to 1428 in 1996 and the membership has been static at 1.6 million of 7 million of working population.The ratification of ILO concourse 144 on Tripartite ease by the Sri Lankan Government signifies the acceptance of the need to consult the employer and employer organizations by the government in regard to matters of mutual interest. The significance of this event is that the acceptance of the principle that the government should consult the other two social partners at national level make sit morally obligatory for the employers to consult the trade unions at organizational level.The structures of tripartism have existed in diverse forms, but in that respect has been little effort to co-ordinate and harmonize the interest and work of the social partners or to provide them with the role of active participation at national level such as (a) Minimum wages fixed for 40 trades by Wages Boards set up by the Labour Ministry under the Wages Boards Ordinance, are tripartite in character. These boards permit a informative approach to the fixing of terms and conditions (b) A National Advisory Council was set up in 1989, with the objective of having a permanent consultive appliance w ithin the Ministry of Labour. The objectives of the council were immensely to consult worker and employer interests on policy matters and capital punishment of proposed changes in Labour law (c) Employees councils were made obligatory by the Employees Council Act No. 32 of 1979, in public corporations and government owned undertakings, to go on participation of employees in the affairs of these organizations (c) In the Free Trade Zones (FTZ) administrated by the Board of Investment (BOI), companies are expected to set up vocalise Employees Councils as a condition of licensing.Tripartism cannot be strengthened or displace on a stronger base by passing legislation. If the desired results are to be achieved, the implementation of the laws must be monitored and enforced to some extent. thinking and educating the workers as well as employers on advantages of book of facts and dialogue at all levels are considered desirable than enforcement of laws. It is imperative that the attitu de of officials should change. They should be facilitators rather than regulators in promoting good industrial relations. It has been observed that at national level, there seem to be a tendency for some unions to affiliate and also employers interested in working together to deal with problems on a common front. It also appears that more and more bipartism is exhibited at work place which is a good sign of collaboration by social partners. EFC in 1989 suggested to ILO a strategy to build up a tripartite consultative process to be the joint responsibility of the EFC and the Trade Unions. The first frame was a join body on safe and Health. This industrial Safety and Health Association (ISHA) brought the parties together in a spirit of co operation on Safety and Health. This led to a seething up of another mechanism called Labour Management Consultative Committee (LMCC).The collective bargaining/agreement is a mechanism under the provisions of the Industrial Disputes Act to resolve disputes and to maintain industrial peace. The government has ratified ILO Convention 87 on Freedom of Association and 97 on embodied Bargaining. One of the key reasons for the employees to organize themselves was for the purpose of collective bargaining, and the EFC has been instrumental in encouraging this process in the private sector and responsible for the many collective agreements signed to date. Even though this is a mechanism that could be used to the benefit of both parties, due to numerous reasons the use of this process in a greater extent has been restricted. Firstly, the employers have found that asunder from industrial peace, Unions in general do not wish to advise in return, other benefits such as productivity, rationalization of work arrangements.Industrial Relations in JapanThe central features of the Japanese industrial relations trunk include workplace focused enterprises unions, life employment systems, broad based training and seniority based wages. Another outcome of the Japanese institutions such as the Keiretsu system and the system of production organization (subcontracting and quality-focused, squad based work) is the simultaneous achievement of stability in labour market terms and considerable functional flexibility in work place level industrial relations through the development of internal labour markets. The Japanese follow permanent employment system, consensus decision making and truehearted leadership. The Japanese respect the senior and senior behaves just like a guardian not like a boss. Management treats all as team members whether executives or workers. They emphasize on continuous customer focus improvement in quality and total involvement.There is disagreement on the date of institution of the Japanese industrial relations system. Taira (1970 as cited in Khan Taher, 2009) suggested that the lifetime employment practice developed in the late 1800s in the silk industry where employers, forced to compete for scarce l abour, instituted lifetime employment to create stable employment conditions. The key practices were encouraged by the government, which institutionalized several of them during the inter-war period in its Factories Act of 1938. Enterprise unionism emerged post war based on the structure of the firms (the large employers who accounted for a significant share of employment). Jacopy (1993) and Gordon (1985) (as cited in Khan Taher, 2009) also suggested that precursors to the current system could be seen in the company unions of the 1920s, with institutional occurring during the interwar period.Cusumano(1985) argues that it was the early labour-management crises in the post-war period, conjugate with the revolution in production management that account for the creation of the more advanced aspects of the internal labour market in Japanese industry. Okayama (1986) also credited the industrial strife of the 1950s as the most important variable in the development of the Japanese Industr ial Relations system, a view also held by Kenney and Florida (1994) and Takahashi (1997) who argued, The main stimulus (for lifetime employment) was the experience of large-scale conflict between labour and capital in the early post-war years, partly in response to many workers being made pointless as the war industries shut down. Employers sought a way to end or reduce this conflict, not a social or political norm impervious to pressures of economic change. (as cited in Khan Taher,2009).There were several changes in the Japanese system over the 1970s and 1980s. Notably, there was wearing in the seniority based wages concept, as wages began to be tied increasingly to skills acquisition and productivity, while employers had started the practice of mid life history hires in white collar and technical occupations. The practice of Shukko- transferring employees to other separate of the Keirestu during downturns-had gained in prominence over the last two decades.Recent Changes in Indu strial Relations of JapanIn the 1990s, there has been acceleration in the change already underway, as well as changes in other practices that constitute the core of the Japanese (IR) system. This has been due in large part to the effect of the recession of the 1990s, as Berggeren, argues, which has been the heavyest one since the 2nd World war. Thus, in the 1990s, there has been a significant questioning of the lifetime employment concept, with awful declines in job security on an unprecedented scale, changes in hiring practices from schools and universities, a dramatic increase in outsourcing strategies, the introduction of limited term employment contracts for some occupations, increased wage flexibility, and some degree of union restructuring, along with record of breaking up of some Keiretsus. By themselves, any one of these changes might suggest a gradual adaption to new economic circumstances, but all of these happenings together in the 1990s suggest the critical importance of the 1990s recession in forcing employers to question the existing practices and act to change them.These changes came as a movement towards transformation of the industrial relations system given that the evidence suggests changes in most aspects of employment relations in Japan, such as job security, hiring, corporate governance, wages and wage flexibility and the role of seniority, as well as union structure, and would seemingly consist of a significant eroding of the three pillars and a move towards and a move towards a more individual based system such as in the United States (Brown, Nakata, Reich and Ulman,1997). There is also some evidence that the Keiretsu system is breaking down after the crisis, possibly as a result of firms capital requirements, and thus one major source of the stickness seems to be weakening ( as cited in Khan Taher,2009).Lessons for Bangladesh and Sri Lanka from Japanese PerspectivesProper industrial relations imply harmonious and peaceful relations between labour and management. In such a situation both labour and management realise their mutual obligations toward each other and resort to actions that promote harmony and understanding. For making a fruitful comparison in the characteristics of industrial relations in between Japan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, we need to make a systematic analysis. The main lessons for Bangladesh and Sri Lanka may be summarized as followsThe level of organizational commitment among the workers and employees should be increasedHuman Resources should be treated as organizations assets rather than a money making machineManagement of conflict and employee grievances should be handled efficaciously which ultimately would lead to innovation and productivity improvement of a concerned organizationDuring selection and promotion of candidates (employees) a human resource manager should follow a standard method and all candidates can get equal treatment without biasThe activities of industrial relations in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka should be free from the influence of party politicsOrganizational polices and strategies should be formulated and also implement through general consensus between the workers/employees and the employers.Policy ImplicationsAlthough the present study was confined to IR in Japan Lessons for Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, it may be appropriate to state briefly the policy implications for the study. In this context, the following policy actions may be considered worthwhile.Proper Demographic EnvironmentIt is essential that in order to ensure effective IR, a proper democratic environment in the greater society is essential. In the absence of democratic environment the employers may try to exploit the workers and even the workers may try to adopt unfair means, thereby disturbing industrial harmony.effective managementEfficient management, capable of performing its duties professionally and thereby satisfying both the parties- the employers and the employees-is indis pensable.Sprit of Collective BargainingThe relationship between an employee and the employer will be congenial only when the differences between them are settled through mutual negotiation and consultation rather than through the intervention of any troika party.Existence of difficult and well organized trade unionsIndustrial relations will be sound only when the bargaining power of the workers unions is equal to that of management. A strong trade union can protect the workers interest relating to wages, benefits, job security, etc.Existence of sound and organised employers unionsThese associations are helpful for the promotion and maintenance of uniform Human Resource (HR) policies among various organizations and to protect the interests of weak employers cogitate RemarksIn fine, it can be said as to industrial relations in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka that despite a much smaller number of work stoppages in recent years the industrial relations have been far from being sound. There w ere attitudinal problems of mistrust, multiplicity of unions, political affiliation of unions on deep ideological grounds, employers reluctance to part with information, their undermining the importance of unions and by passing laws, unions not representing the interest of the workers but of the political parties and overwhelming emphasis on third party settlement which has not proved too effective. 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